Microscopy imaging

ABSTRACT

Among other things, an imaging device has a photosensitive array of pixels, and a surface associated with the array is configured to receive a specimen with at least a part of the specimen at a distance from the surface equivalent to less than about half of an average width of the pixels.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation (and claims the benefit of priorityunder 35 USC 120) of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/698,532, filed on Apr.28, 2015, which claims the benefit of U.S. application Ser. No.12/913,639, filed Oct. 27, 2010, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,041,790 issued onMay 26, 2015, which claims the benefit of the filing date of U.S.provisional application Ser. 61/255,781, filed Oct. 28, 2009, “ContactOptical Microscopy”, which are all incorporated here by reference intheir entireties.

BACKGROUND

Microscopy in its various forms is an essential tool in an ever-growingrange of human activity, from basic research in the natural sciences,industrial research and development, process and quality control,forensics and biosafety, to clinical human and veterinary medicaldiagnostics, among others. The most widely used form of microscopy isoptical. The resolution of standard forms of optical microscopy,however, is limited to several hundred nanometers by the diffraction oflight between the specimen and the microscope objective lens. Due to itswave properties, light passing through a circular lens creates aring-shaped diffraction pattern; the images of two different pointsformed by such a lens can be resolved if the principal diffractionmaximum of one point lies outside of the first minimum of the otherpoint. This theoretical diffraction limit, also known as the Abbe limitor Rayleigh criterion, is approximately equal to 0.61λ/NA, where λ isthe wavelength of the light and NA is the numerical aperture of thelens, given by

NA=n sin α

where n is the index of refraction of the optical medium between thelens and the specimen and α is the half-angle of acceptance of the lens.Currently available microscope objective lenses typically have NA<1.4,so that the theoretical diffraction limit for visible light is >200 nm;in practice the resolution limit of standard optical microscopes,compromised by various lens aberrations, is poorer, seldom much below0.5 μm.

A variety of approaches have been taken to reduce or overcome thediffraction limit. NA can be increased by use of high refractive indexmedia. The size of an illumination spot can be reduced by strategiessuch as stimulated emission depletion (STED), or the positions of sparseindividual molecules can be approximated by the centers of theirdiffracted images.

Near-field scanning optical microscopes (NSOMs) can overcome thediffraction limit by using a probe having a tip smaller than thewavelength of light and positioned less than a wavelength from thespecimen. In a typical configuration, the probe tip or aperture isscanned along the specimen close to its surface to map the near fieldproduced by fluorescence at the specimen surface. NSOM imaging isnon-destructive and can be carried out in an aqueous environment,permitting observation of living cells and hydrated molecules.

Other methods exist that do not require scanning, but instead require asuperlens. Lensless microscopy methods are known, however they mayrequire integration of multiple images or subsequent computational imagederivation in order to produce usable images.

SUMMARY

In general, in an aspect, an imaging device has a photosensitive arrayof pixels, and a surface associated with the array is configured toreceive a specimen with at least a part of the specimen at a distancefrom the surface equivalent to less than about half of an average widthof the pixels.

Implementations may include one or more of the following features. Thespecimen is included. There is a light source. A specimen chamberadjacent the surface is defined in part by a wall that is spaced apartfrom the surface and transmits light to illuminate the specimen. A fluidchannel carries a fluid specimen into the chamber. The chamber is sealedagainst leakage of fluid. A second fluid channel carries the fluidspecimen out of the chamber. There is a reservoir for the fluid specimenand a pump to pump the fluid specimen from the reservoir and into andout of the chamber. There is an imaging integrated circuit. Theintegrated circuit is back-side illuminated. A computer-based systemuses a program to display, analyze, or store high-resolution images ofthe specimen using information derived from the device.

The specimen comprises a solid. The specimen comprises a liquid or issuspended or dissolved in a liquid. The wall has at least one electrodeadjacent to the chamber. The wall has a heating element adjacent to thechamber. The wall has a temperature probe adjacent to the chamber. Thewall has a pH probe adjacent to the chamber. The wall is at leastpartially translucent. The light source is positioned so that a path oflight from the light source to the surface is at an angle of 45 degreesor more to the surface. The light source is positioned so that a path oflight from the light source to the surface is at an angle of at most 45degrees to the surface. The light source is positioned so that a path oflight from the light source to the surface is approximately parallel tothe surface. The light source comprises light-emitting diodes. The lightsource comprises ambient light. The light source comprises a portablemulti-color light source.

There is a layer of transparent chemically resistant material on thesurface. The chemically resistant material comprises diamond. Thechemically resistant material comprises Al₂O₃. The chemically resistantmaterial comprises Si₃N₄. There is a layer of wavelength-filteringmaterial on the surface. A layer of light-transmissive material containsfluorophores on the surface. The specimen emits light. There is a layerof polarizing material coating the surface. A layer of adhesive materialcoats the surface. The photosensitive array provides a high resolution.

In general, in an aspect, an imaging device has a photosensitive array,and a surface associated with the array is configured to receive aspecimen with at least a part of the specimen at a distance from thephotosensitive array that satisfies or at least approximately satisfiesa near-field criterion.

In general, in an aspect, at least a part of a specimen is placed at adistance, from a surface associated with a photosensitive array ofpixels, that is equivalent to less than about half of an average widthof the pixels, and signals generated by the photosensitive array areused to produce a high resolution image of the specimen.

Among other advantages of these and other aspects and features are thefollowing. These approaches in devices are simple, easy to use, notcumbersome, have broad applicability to a very wide range ofapplications, are relatively inexpensive and rapid. In someimplementations, they are suitable for imaging of moving or rapidlychanging specimens. Difficult to fabricate inexpensive optical elementsmay not be required.

These and other features and aspects, and combinations of them, may beexpressed as methods, systems, components, means and steps forperforming functions, business methods, program products, and in otherways.

Other advantages and features will become apparent from the followingdescription and from the claims.

DESCRIPTION

FIG. 1 shows a top view of an imaging device.

FIG. 2 shows a section view of an imaging device.

FIG. 3 shows a top view of an imaging integrated circuit.

FIG. 4 shows a section view of an imaging device equipped with a lightsource, a probe, electrodes, a heating element, and a fluid flow system.

FIGS. 5A, 5B, and 5C show section views of an imaging device with lightsources: light-emitting diodes (FIG. 5A), ambient (FIG. 5B), andportable multi-color (FIG. 5C).

FIGS. 6A through 6G show section views of an imaging integrated circuitwith coatings: transparent, wavelength-filtering or polarizing (FIG.6A), metallic (FIG. 6B), plastic (FIG. 6C), transparent chemicallyresistant (FIG. 6D), nonconductor (FIG. 6E), adhesive (FIG. 6F), andtransparent having fluorophores, scintillants or phosphors (FIG. 6G).

FIG. 7 shows a section view of an imaging device equipped with aportable multi-color light source and a housing with power, I/O, andfluid connectors.

FIG. 8 shows a schematic of an imaging device and a computer-basedsystem, with dashed lines indicating light along the optical path.

FIG. 9 shows a computed plot of a pixel response due to light from apoint source passing into an imaging integrated circuit constructed insilicon at various distances from a center of a middle pixel (origin) asthe distance (elevation) of the source above that center is increased.Distance, both laterally and above the surface, is measured in units ofthe width of a pixel. Each curve represents a relation for a specifiedvertical distance of the source above the photosensitive surface of theimaging integrated circuit, as indicated in the inset key.

FIGS. 10A and 10B show (10A) transmission coefficients of the Fresnelformulas for angles between zero and ninety degrees; (10B) anillustration of decreasing pixel profile with respect to a light sourceas angle of light with respect to the surface normal increases.

FIG. 11 is an image of a 30 μm-thick Mylar sheet, imaged using anapparatus referred to in the Examples, having 5.2 μm×5.2 μm pixels.

FIG. 12 is an image of micro-droplets in an aerosol of organic solvent,imaged using an apparatus referred to in the Examples, having 5.2 μm×5.2μm pixels.

FIG. 13 is an image of a 1 μl droplet of water with suspended Sephadexbeads of sizes ranging from <20 μm to >100 μm, imaged using an apparatusreferred to in the Examples, having 5.2 μm×5.2 μm pixels.

FIG. 14 is an image of a sample of fresh, living, unstained blood froman African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis), diluted in calcium-freeRinger's solution, imaged using an apparatus referred to in theExamples, with pixels 2.2 μm×2.2 μm. A full field of view (3.2×2.4 mm)is shown, along with a “zoomed in” view of part of the field of view, inwhich the elliptical shape and nucleated structure of the erythrocytes(long axis ˜24 μm, short axis ˜161 μm) is evident. The zoomed image hasbeen enhanced by 2×2 pixel augmentation with bicubic interpolation.

FIG. 15 is a portion of the field of view of two frames of a videosequence of a living water flea (Daphnia sp.), imaged using an apparatusreferred to in the Examples, with pixels 2.2 μm×2.21 m.

FIGURE LEGEND

-   101 Specimen chamber-   103 Chamber lid-   105 Walls of chamber lid-   107 Top of chamber lid-   109 Rubberized gasket-   110 Recess-   111 Photosensitive surface-   113 Imaging integrated circuit-   115 Space-   117 Locating block-   119 Side of locating block-   121 Opposite side of locating block-   123 Spring clips-   124 Base of spring clips-   125 Mounting block-   127 Printed circuit headboard-   129 Shim-   131 Solder pads-   149 Waste chamber-   151 Fluid flow system-   152 Tubing-   153 First fluid channel-   154 First connector-   155 Second fluid channel-   156 Second connector-   157 Pump-   159 Reservoir-   161 Light source-   163 LEDs-   165 Ambient light source-   167 Portable multi-color light source-   169 Display for portable multi-color light source-   203 High-resolution photosensitive pixel array-   205 Supporting circuitry-   207 Pixel(s)-   307 Cover-   313 Imaging integrated circuit-   361 Light source-   380 Coating-   393 Collimator-   395 Computer-based system-   400 Imaging device-   401 Housing-   452 Input connector for fluid flow system-   454 Output connector for fluid flow system-   456 Input/output connector-   458 Power connector-   461 OLED light source-   495 Circuitry for input/output and illumination control-   501 Temperature probe-   503 pH probe-   505 Heating element-   507 Electrode-   509 Second electrode-   613 Imaging integrated circuit-   614 Transparent coating, wavelength-filtering or polarizing material-   615 Transparent chemically resistant material (diamond, Al₂O₃,    Si₃N₄), transparent mechanically resistant material-   616 Fluorophore, phosphor or scintillant-   617 Adhesive coating-   618 Plastic coating-   619 Metallic coating, surface plasmon generating material-   620 Passivation layer-   701 Photosensitive array having pixels-   703 Point source of light-   705 VLSI circuit-   707 Angle-   709 Origin-   711 Second angle-   713 Pixel immediately under light source-   717 Pixel not immediately under light source    Among other things, we describe an imaging apparatus that achieves    resolution beyond the classical diffraction limits of conventional    microscopy by utilizing an imaging integrated circuit having a    high-resolution photosensitive array and supporting circuitry for    readout. Spatial resolution is not limited by the diffraction limit    as is inherent in most optical systems. No lenses or computational    correction algorithms are required to produce high-resolution    images.

The devices and methods described here can yield high-resolution imagesof a specimen without the need for lenses or computational imagecorrection. Images are captured using an imaging integrated circuithaving a high-resolution photosensitive array of pixels presenting aphotosensitive surface, with supporting circuitry for readout, andassociated computing equipment for data processing and user interaction.Light sources may be ambient or provided in an apparatus as appropriate.For parts of the specimen within half a pixel width of thephotosensitive surface, the resolution of the image is limited by thesize of the pixels making up the photosensitive surface. If the averagewidth of these pixels is less than about half the wavelength of thelight being used and the specimen is within half a pixel width of thephotosensitive surface, then the near-field criterion may be satisfiedand images can be obtained that equal or exceed the resolution ofstandard lens-based optical microscopes. The near-field criterion may beconsidered to be reached, for example, when the distance between thephotosensitive surface and the specimen is less than the wavelength ofinterest.

Embodiments of imaging devices are illustrated by the examples shown inFIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. In some implementations, the imagingdevice may be oriented such that specimens are brought closer to thephotosensitive surface by the force of gravity. In some embodiments, theimaging device is inverted or mounted on its side vertically,incorporating when necessary a restraint (not shown) for specimens inthe specimen chamber. A cavity denoted specimen chamber 101 is formed bya chamber lid 103 having walls 105 and top 107, and by a photosensitivesurface 111 presented by an imaging integrated circuit 113.

In some examples, the chamber lid may be made of any material that isrigid enough to resist warping or cracking under pressure. In someembodiments, the chamber lid 103 is at least partially transmissive oflight. In some embodiments, the walls 105 are made of opaque material(examples include metal and ceramic) and the top 107 is either absent ormade of transparent material. In some embodiments, the chamber lid 103is made of glass or polystyrene and the top is between about 0.5 mm andabout 1 mm in thickness. The walls of the chamber lid are of suchdimensions and thickness as to approximately enclose the photosensitivesurface in their inside dimensions and to approximately enclose theimaging integrated circuit in their outside dimensions. In someembodiments, the walls of the chamber lid are rectangular and each wallof the chamber lid has an inside length less than about 10 mm. Thedistance between the top 107 of the chamber lid 103 and the surface 111is preferably between about 50 μm and about 1 mm, more preferablybetween about 75 μm and about 250 μm. In some embodiments, the top 107achieves the desired specimen chamber height in the region of a recess110 with respect to the height of the walls 105; in some embodiments,the recess is either absent, or no larger than necessary to receive alight source 161. A surface of the bottom 109 of the chamber lid 103 maybe rubberized with a gasket or treated with a water-resistantmicrolayer, to assure a fluid-tight pressure-resistant seal when presseddown upon the non-photosensitive ceramic or plastic package of theimaging integrated circuit 113 by spring clips 123. The specimen chamberholds the specimen and medium in which the specimen is carried. For dryspecimens, the medium may be air or some other gas or gas mixtureappropriate to the stability or properties of the specimen. For liquidspecimens or specimens suspended or dissolved in liquid, the medium isan appropriate liquid; the chamber need not be voided of gas in order toobtain images of such specimens.

The imaging integrated circuit 113, a very-large-scale integrated (VLSI)circuit, has a high-resolution photosensitive array 203 including atwo-dimensional array of pixels presented at its surface 111, surroundedby non-photosensitive supporting circuitry 205 for readout. The imagingintegrated circuit 113 (including packaging) is electrically andmechanically attached to the headboard 127, which is a printed circuitboard whose components connect to circuitry on the mounting block 125.The imaging integrated circuit 113 makes electronic and mechanicalconnection to the headboard 127 by means of a multiplicity of solderpads 131. Integrated circuit packaging for such purposes includes but isnot limited to ball grid arrays, quad flat packs, and leadless chipcarriers. The array 203 is made of materials used in very-large-scale orlarger integrated circuits; in some embodiments, the array issubstantially germanium, gallium nitride, or gallium arsenide. In someembodiments, the array is substantially silicon. In some embodiments,the high-resolution photosensitive array comprises a charge-coupleddevice (CCD); in other embodiments, the high-resolution photosensitivearray is fabricated in CMOS. As an illustrative example, the OmniVisionOV5642 imaging integrated circuit has area dimensions approximately 6.96mm×6.71 mm, surrounding a photosensitive array approximately 3.67mm×2.73 mm in area. This array is near centered, having a center withrespect to the IC center (0,0) at about (220, 445) μm.

The chamber lid 103 is positioned in place within a space 115 defined bya rectangular locating block 117. Both the locating block 117 and theimaging integrated circuit 113 on its headboard 127 are situated atopthe mounting block 125. The mounting block 125 is large enough in areato accommodate the dimensions of the locating block plus the springclips 123. The locating block 117 is bonded to the mounting block 125 bymeans of solder, adhesive, or screws. In some embodiments, the locatingblock is made of a rigid, opaque material (examples of which includeplastic, metal, or fiberglass) of about 1-2 mm thickness, with lengthdimensions of at most about 0.5 mm larger than those of the chamber lidwalls. Two or more adjacent spring clips 11 are bonded to mounting block125 at their bases 124, and they overlay locating block 117 and at leastpart of the walls 105 of the chamber lid 103, holding the lid in placeinside the space 115. There are two spring clips 123 on each of twoopposite sides 119, 121 of the locating block. The spring clips on eachside are oriented in parallel and are of such shape as to facilitateinsertion and removal of specimens and the chamber lid 103 when not inoperation, but to maintain the lid in place during operation. In someembodiments, the spring clips are metal. In some embodiments, the springclips are plastic. In some embodiments, the chamber lid is held in thespace by means of other fasteners such as, for example, screws or slidesadapted to the inside of the locating block. The outside edge of theimaging integrated circuit 113 is surrounded by a rectangular shim 129of height approximately equal to the circuit's height and thicknessequal to the remainder of the space 115 not occupied by the imagingintegrated circuit. The shim 129 is made of suitable shimming material;as examples, the shim can be made of plastic, phenolic, fiberglass, ormetal. The shim 129 is bonded to the mounting block 125 by means ofsolder, adhesive, or screws; it is also bonded to the outside edge ofthe imaging integrated circuit 113 by means of injected latex, silicone,plastic (preferably polystyrene), or adhesive so as to maintain afluid-tight seal with the imaging integrated circuit.

One or more angled fluid channels are situated each having one lower endopening into the specimen chamber and the other, upper end positioned soas to allow flow of liquid specimen into or out of the specimen chamber,as appropriate. In some embodiments, there is a first fluid channel 153and a second fluid channel 155 situated opposite each other within thewalls 105 of the specimen chamber 103. These fluid channels havediameter slightly less than the height of the specimen chamber. Theyare, for example, cylindrical and oriented at an angle, for example,about 45 degrees with respect to the surface 111, permitting passage offluid from the outside of the device into the specimen chamber. In someembodiments, a fluid flow system 151 is connected to fluid channels 153,155 by tubing 152 and respective connectors 154,156, e.g. micro-Luer-Lokhubs. The fluid flow system 151 includes the tubing 152, a pump 157 thatis preferably reversible and capable of variable flow rate, a reservoir159, and a waste chamber 149. The tubing is preferably fused silica orplastic. In some embodiments, there are several pairs of fluid channelsand associated fluid flow systems for flow cytometry and sortingapplications.

A specimen may be placed into the specimen chamber 101, either bytemporarily removing the chamber lid 103 to give access to the specimenchamber, or, particularly in the case of liquid specimen, by insertingthe liquid specimen through one of the fluid channels 153, 155. Liquidspecimens could be blood or other cells or microorganisms, seeds,pollen, spores, particles, droplets, crystals, sediments or othermaterials, suspended in water, saline or other aqueous solutions, or anyother sufficiently fluid and non-viscous inorganic or organic fluid.Such liquid specimens may be static, or can flow through the chamberduring imaging, driven either by negative or positive pressure providedby a micro-pump, syringe, gravity, surface tension, rotating discs orany other suitable motive source. Such liquid specimens could be inputusing a micropipette, a syringe or another such loading device, bydeposition of a droplet onto the inlet, or by connection of a fluidreservoir.

Specimens may be, among other things, organic or inorganic, living ordead, dry or in liquid, and also combinations of those. Specimens, whichdepend on the resolution of the particular embodiment, can include butare not limited to proteins, DNA, RNA, nanomaterials, nanoscalestructures, thin sections prepared by microtome or ultramicrotome,polymers, saccharides, lipid vesicles, biological cells, tissue samples,histological sections, micro-organisms, viruses, and combinations ofthose specimens. In some embodiments, seeding of a living specimen suchas a cell onto the photosensitive surface or associated substrate orcoating will allow for real-time or time-lapsed imaging of cell growth,movement, or other dynamic behavior. In some embodiments, specimens arestationary. In some embodiments the specimens may be caused to flowacross the photosensitive surface by use of fluid channels attached topumps and reservoirs. In some embodiments, there is at least a pair offluid channels. In some embodiments, there are three or more fluidchannels, the number being governed by the flow characteristics that aresuitable for the application. In some embodiments, fluid flow isactuated by positive pressure; in some embodiments, fluid flow isactuated by negative pressure. Such an arrangement may be useful in theevaluation of disease states as imaged from cell suspensions or bodilyfluids, including but not limited to blood, lymph, semen, bile, andurine. In some embodiments, the imaging integrated circuit outputsimages to a computer comprising appropriate software for flow cytometry.

In some embodiments, placement of the specimen is manual; in the absenceof a chamber lid, placing a specimen directly on the photosensitivesurface will automatically satisfy or approximately satisfy theconditions for pixel-limited resolution for at least some part of thespecimen; if the distance between at least part of the specimen and thephotosensitive surface is less than the wavelength of light, thenear-field criterion is also satisfied. In some embodiments, of interestfor specimens in liquid, the specimen is placed on the imagingintegrated circuit or substrate using a fluid flow system for movementand flow-through imaging of the specimen as it passes the imagingintegrated circuit. Such a fluid flow system can comprise a simplesystem for liquid specimen placement and removal, such as a droplet of aspecimen manually applied to the imaging integrated circuit, and ablotting paper oblique to the imaging integrated circuit and in contactwith the specimen so as to soak up the liquid over time. In otherembodiments, such a fluid flow system comprises a pump or otherappropriate means for pulling/pushing the specimen; and aspecimen-containing conduit, at least a segment of which (namely, thesegment in the optical path) is substantially transmissive to apredetermined wavelength.

Images of the specimen can be obtained in the presence of the lightsource 161. The light source 161 produces at least one wavelength forwhich the imaging integrated circuit 113 is responsive. In someembodiments, the light source includes a laser and the predeterminedwavelength is the substantially monochromatic wavelength of the laser.In some embodiments, the light source includes a blackbody and thepredetermined wavelength band is a segment of the electromagneticspectrum which the blackbody is suitably efficient at producing, with orwithout use of a bandpass spectral filter interposed between the lightsource and the specimen. In some embodiments, the light source comprisesone or more light-emitting diodes 163, for example, an organiclight-emitting diode array, oriented so as to produce light in thepredetermined wavelength band or bands. In some embodiments, the lightsource is continuous. In some embodiments, the light source is pulsed.In some embodiments, the light source is polarized. In some embodiments,the light source may be placed on the tip of a nanoscale probe. In someembodiments, the light source includes any ambient, incandescent, orfluorescent light source, including light produced by the sun 165. Insome embodiments, the light source is structured, such as a periodicgrating of bright bars. In some embodiments, there may be additionallight sources. In conjunction with appropriate oblique, pulsed,polarized, structured, or other forms of illumination, some embodimentscan generate additional useful information corresponding to methodsknown in the art of microscopy, including but by no means limited todark field, fluorescence, fluorescence lifetime, optical tomography, andpolarization microscopy. In some embodiments, the specimen is itself thelight source 161; for example through chemi-luminescence, or because thephotosensitive array is treated to render it sensitive to radiationemitted by a radioactive specimen. In some embodiments, the light sourceis part of a portable electronic device capable of multi-color lightemission 167, such as a smartphone. In some embodiments, the smartphonehas a high-intensity organic light-emitting diode display 169 thatallows for illumination at different wavelengths and positions relativeto the photosensitive surface, with independently controlled onset andduration and capable of simultaneous light source control so as toapproximate a uniformly diffuse source.

The spectra of the light source(s) may lie in any predetermined regionof the electromagnetic spectrum detectable using photosensitive arrays,with or without specialized treatments to extend the effective ranges ofwavelengths detectable by such arrays. In some embodiments, thepredetermined wavelength or wavelength band is in the infrared spectrum.In some embodiments, the predetermined wavelength or wavelength band isin the ultraviolet spectrum. In some embodiments, the predeterminedwavelength or wavelength band is in the visible spectrum. In someembodiments, the predetermined wavelength or wavelength band is in theX-ray spectrum. In some embodiments, the predetermined wavelength orwavelength band is in the microwave spectrum. In some embodiments, thepredetermined wavelength or wavelength band is approximately that whichhas a frequency between about 1 Terahertz and about 1,000 Terahertz.Combinations of light in two or more bands may be used in some examples.

In some embodiments, the light source includes individually controlledlight-emitting diodes (LEDs) selected for their spectral emissioncharacteristics and their uniformity of emitted light, and positioned soas to facilitate the analyses contemplated. In some embodiments, thelight sources are positioned so as to uniformly illuminate the specimenchamber. The LEDs are controlled, for example, by either an embeddedcontroller incorporated within the instrument or by a microprocessorcontained in smartphones or other commercially-available,“off-the-shelf” computing devices. The LEDs will be controlled, forexample, either singly or in groups so as to facilitate the analyses tobe contemplated, including but not limited to conventional microscopywherein the illuminator, the specimen and the imaging system aresubstantially aligned, and dark-field microscopy wherein the specimen isilluminated from an angle outside the acceptance angle of the pixel. Inaddition, through appropriate selection of the LEDs in the illuminator,the contemplated contact microscope can be used for, but not be limitedto, e.g., color imaging, fluorescence microscopy, polarizationmicroscopy, infra-red and ultra-violet microscopy. Some embodiments willincorporate multiple illuminators, each of which may have differentcharacteristics so as to facilitate the conduct of a wider range ofanalyses. In some embodiments the illuminators will be easilyinterchangeable. In some embodiments the illuminators may includeorganic LED (OLED) or active matrix organic LED (AMOLED) panel withselective addressing. Some embodiments facilitate both uniform specimenillumination and rapid illumination variation so as to facilitateanalyses yet to be contemplated with both stationary and movingspecimens. In some embodiments, an AMOLED panel may be used toilluminate the specimen through appropriate control of the panelphotoemitters. In some examples, the illuminator can include LEDs,organic LED panels, fluorescent panels, x-ray sources, ultravioletsources, ambient illumination such as sunlight or room light,incandescent sources, or any other light source, including none, e.g.,for chemiluminescent specimens, and combinations of these examples.Configurations of the sources include, but are not limited to, flatpanels, rectangular or other grid layouts of sources, movable sources,multi-color sources, and sources affixed to the inside or ahemispherical shell mounted over the specimen chamber with the centre ofthe chamber as the center of the shell, or combinations of them. Controlof the illumination sources may include, but not be limited to, steadyillumination, selectively exciting one or a plurality of illuminationsources simultaneously or in sequence, controlling the intensity of anyone or a plurality of sources, controlling each or a plurality ofsources so as to have a specific temporal illumination pattern, or usingany one or any combination of them and others (including futuretechnologies). The controller for the illumination may include, but notbe limited to, a manual controller such as a switch or knob, anautomated embedded computing system, an external computing system suchas a smartphone, an external computing system such as a desktop orlaptop computer, or a combination of the foregoing. FIG. 7 illustratesfeatures of some embodiments. In some examples, the imaging device 400is placed in a housing 401 with a hinged lid, by which hinge dryspecimens may be inserted and removed. On the underside of the lid, anorganic LED light source 461 illuminates the specimen. Integral to thelid and bonded to the light source 461 is the circuitry 495 forinput/output and illumination control. Power connector 458 is attachedto the circuitry 495. Input/output connector 456, preferably a USBinterface, is attached to the circuitry 495 adjacent to the light source461. Paired fluid flow connectors 452, 454 attach to a fluid flow systemakin to that in FIG. 4. The form factor of the entire embodiment of FIG.7 can be about that of a smartphone, for example.

FIG. 8 illustrates the flow of light and output data when an embodimentof an imaging system is in operation. A light source 361 produces lightin, for example, a predetermined wavelength or wavelength band. In someembodiments, a collimator 393 having a lens, filter, or combinationthereof ensures that the light is collimated along an optical path andis composed of substantially only wavelengths of the predeterminedwavelength or wavelength band. Light travels along the optical pathtoward the imaging integrated circuit 313. In some embodiments, theangle of incidence of the light onto the imaging integrated circuit willbe oblique, rather than normal. In some embodiments, an optional cover307 substantially transmissive to the predetermined wavelength orwavelength band restricts the specimen volume or protects the specimenfrom unintended movement or exposure. The specimen is illuminated, andthe resultant light produces an image in the optical path beyond it. Insome embodiments, an optional coating 380 lies between the specimen andthe imaging integrated circuit 313. The resultant image as captured bythe imaging integrated circuit 313 is outputted to a computer-basedsystem 395 for storage, readout, or analysis.

In our discussion we use the term “high-resolution” to refer, forexample, to a resolution that equals or exceeds the resolution ofstandard lens-based optical microscopes. For example, depending on thecontext of the application, high-resolution can mean less than 5 μm,less than 2 μm, less than 1 μm, less than about 0.5 μm, or even less.Resolution is primarily determined by the pixel size of thephotosensitive array. Some photosensitive arrays have many millionsquare pixels each slightly more than 1 μm on a side, resulting in aresolution of about 1 μm; the resolution achievable will improve withdecreasing pixel sizes, theoretically exceeding, for example, 1 billionpixels, each as small as 200 nm or less on a side, as the design andfabrication techniques of integrated circuits or other devices improve.The number, shape, and arrangement of pixels in the array is arbitrary,with no intrinsic limit, and can be predetermined for manufacture basedon the corresponding application of interest. In some embodiments, thelongest pixel dimension is 10 μm or smaller. In some embodiments, thelongest pixel dimension is 5 μm or smaller. In some embodiments, thelongest pixel dimension is 1 micron or smaller. In some embodiments, thelongest pixel dimension is 500 nm or smaller. In some embodiments, thelongest pixel dimension is 250 nm or smaller.

Imaging integrated circuits can be constructed that have pixel sizessmaller than the wavelength of visible light, as shown, for example, inU.S. Pat. No. 7,153,720, incorporated here by reference. In someembodiments, the imaging integrated circuit includes a charge-coupleddevice (CCD). In other embodiments, the imaging integrated circuit isfabricated using complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS)technology. CCDs have advantages for contact optical microscopyapplications, including the ability to detect light over the fullexposed surface of the chip (100% fill factor), though they have slowerreadout speeds relative to CMOS due to requirement for sequentialtransfer of charge from light-sensing (parallel register) to readout(serial register) elements. Various configurations of CCD can be used:full-frame architecture is desirable to maximize the proportion of thechip available for imaging, but requires an external shutter to preventimage smearing during readout; whereas frame-transfer architectureavoids image smearing, but in the process requires a masked,non-photosensitive area of the parallel register of about the same sizeas the photosensitive area of the parallel register, with the resultthat the imaging integrated circuit has about half the photosensitivearea of a full-frame architecture. Because of the small area of theindividual pixels in the arrays used in this invention, the chargecollected in each pixel will be small under many imaging conditions;however, as the specimen is in contact, or nearly in contact, with thepixel, the pixel's effective acceptance angle for photons emanating fromthe specimen is larger than that achieved by lenses in conventionalmicroscopy. In some CCD embodiments, to increase the sensitivityfurther, CCDs of any architecture may additionally employ electronmultiplying gain, in which high clock voltages applied to an extendedregion of the serial register(s) amplify the charge of each pixel as itis shifted to the output node(s).

CMOS devices have alternative advantages for these applications,including less expensive fabrication, signal processing by electronicelements embedded in individual pixels, and the ability to read outindependently-addressed pixel values individually without sequentialtransfer. In some CMOS embodiments, thinned back-side illuminated arraysare used; though previously requiring expensive and complex fabricationmethods, these can now be fabricated cheaply using bonded waferprocesses such as those that use silicon-on-insulator substrates with aburied oxide layer as an etch-stop to yield a uniformly optimallythinned light-absorbing back layer (see as an example, U.S. Pat. No.7,425,460, incorporated here by reference). Light entering ordinary(front-side illuminated) imaging integrated circuits typically passesthrough overlying layers that scatter light and whose metal circuitelements block the underlying photosensitive layer; in back-sideilluminated imaging integrated circuits the photosensitive layer isclose to the surface, above the metal circuit-bearing layers, typicallyresulting in less light blocking (larger “fill factors”) andconsequently higher effective quantum efficiency.

In some embodiments, the imaging integrated circuit is windowless. Mostcommercially available imaging devices have a protective window over theCCD or CMOS, and typically this window must be absent in order for thespecimen to come close enough to the photosensitive surface to achievehigh resolution, as defined above, without computational imageprocessing. When a point on the specimen is less than half a pixel widthfrom the center of the closest pixel, nearly all the light emitted orscattered from that point toward the array will predominantly beincident on, and therefore excite, only the closest pixel; under theseconditions, resolution is determined by the pixel size or, moreprecisely, by the size of a circle of equivalent area (i.e., ˜450 nmresolution for a 400 nm×400 nm pixel), although resolution may befurther enhanced by computation, specimen flow, or other means. Nolenses or any other optical components are required to achieve theseconditions, and thus to achieve such pixel-limited resolution.

Specimens or parts of specimens farther from the photosensitive surfaceare not imaged as sharply, due to the spread of light between thespecimen and the photosensitive surface. As the distance between a pointlight source and the photosensitive surface of the array is increased,the image of the point at the photosensitive surface exhibits increasingblur, as light from the point impinges upon, and excites, additionalpixels beyond the pixel directly below and nearest to the point. Theextent of that spread to additional pixels is governed by twoconsiderations that limit the angle of acceptance of light by the pixels(where angle of acceptance refers to the maximum deviation of a ray fromthe surface normal at which the ray can influence the pixel output).

Firstly, as the angle of incidence of light onto the photosensitivesurface with respect to the surface normal is increased, an increasingportion of the light is reflected, until an angle is reached beyondwhich all the light is reflected. This relationship is defined by theFresnel formulas as follows:

$R_{s} = \left\lbrack \frac{{n_{1}\cos \; \theta_{i}} - {n_{2}\sqrt{1 - \left( {\frac{n_{1}}{n_{2}}\sin \; \theta_{i}} \right)^{2}}}}{{n_{1}\cos \; \theta_{i}} + {n_{2}\sqrt{1 - \left( {\frac{n_{1}}{n_{2}}\sin \; \theta_{i}} \right)^{2}}}} \right\rbrack^{2}$$R_{p} = \left\lbrack \frac{{n_{1}\sqrt{1 - \left( {\frac{n_{1}}{n_{2}}\sin \; \theta_{i}} \right)^{2}}} - {n_{2}\cos \; \theta_{i}}}{{n_{1}\sqrt{1 - \left( {\frac{n_{1}}{n_{2}}\sin \; \theta_{i}} \right)^{2}}} + {n_{2}\cos \; \theta_{i}}} \right\rbrack^{2}$

where

-   -   R_(s)=reflection coefficient for s-polarized light    -   R_(p)=reflection coefficient for p-polarized light    -   θ_(i)=angle of incident ray with respect to surface normal    -   n₁=index of refraction for region containing light source    -   n₂=index of refraction for imaging array        The transmission coefficients are:

T_(s) = 1 − R_(s) T_(p) = 1 − R_(p) $T = \frac{T_{s} + T_{p}}{2}$

where T_(s) is the resultant transmission coefficient for s-polarizedlight, T_(p) is the resultant transmission coefficient for p-polarizedlight, and T is the resultant transmission coefficient for unpolarizedlight. The transmission coefficients are plotted in FIG. 10(a) forangles between zero and ninety degrees. From the figure it is seen thatabout 75 percent of unpolarized light is transmitted up to angles ofabout 60 degrees, after which point transmission falls off sharply.

Secondly, as the angle of light incidence with respect to the surfacenormal increases, the pixel poses a decreasing profile with respect tothe light source.

This situation is shown in FIG. 10(b). In the figure, a point source oflight 703 is positioned above the center of a pixel 713 that is part ofa photosensitive array having pixels 701 that constitutes thephotosensitive part of an imaging VLSI circuit 705. The center of thepixel 713 under the point light source 703 is the point of thephotosensitive pixel array 701 closest to the point light source 703 andis denoted the origin 709 of the coordinate system used in the analysis.The light emitted from said point source is emitted in all directionsequally. The light that falls on the pixel 713 immediately under saidpoint light source receives an amount of light that is proportional toan angle 707 subtended by the area of the pixel at the said point lightsource. Similarly, the light received by any other pixel in the array,e.g., pixel 717, is proportional to an angle 711 that it subtends at thesaid point light source. For each pixel, the angle subtended at thepoint light source is a function of the pixel area projected toward thepoint light source and the distance from the point light source to saidpixel.

The projection of the pixel area in the direction of the source is:

$A_{p} = {{mn}\frac{d}{\sqrt{d^{2} + r^{2}}}}$

where d is the distance of the point source above the photosensitivesurface, m and n are the x and y dimensions of each pixel respectively,and r is the distance from the point along the photosensitive surface tothe pixel of interest. This projected area subtends a solid angle at thesource given by:

$\omega = \frac{mnd}{\left( {d^{2} + r^{2}} \right)^{3/2}}$

and so the proportion of the light flux emitted by the source that fallson this projected area is:

$I_{i} = \frac{I_{s}{mnd}}{4{\pi \left( {d^{2} + r^{2}} \right)}^{3/2}}$

where I_(s) is the source light flux and Ii is the incident intensity onthe projected area of the pixel under consideration. The light thatpasses into the pixel is this light, further attenuated by thetransmission coefficient due to the angle made by the light with thesurface of the pixel. Thus, the light available for detection is:

$I_{p} = {T\frac{I_{s}{mnd}}{4{\pi \left( {d^{2} + r^{2}} \right)}^{3/2}}}$

For example, consider a specimen in aqueous suspension overlaying thesurface of a photosensitive array constructed in silicon. Using an indexof refraction n₁ for water of 1.33 and for silicon n₂ of 4.08, which areapproximately their respective indices at a wavelength of 550 nm, thecomputed spread of detected intensity of light emitted by a point sourceas a function of distance of the source from the silicon surface isshown in FIG. 9. Standard algorithms for image sharpening can utilizethis data for improvement of image quality.

Tolerance for such blurring will depend upon the specific imagingapplication; in some cases, useful information can be obtained fromspecimen regions that do not satisfy the near-field criterion, such asspecimens many micrometers or tens of micrometers from thephotosensitive surface. In some embodiments, the distance between thespecimen and the photosensitive surface is approximately equal to one ofthe following quantities: ten times the average wavelength produced bythe light source, or less than five times the average wavelength, orpreferably less than three times the average wavelength, or morepreferably less than the predetermined wavelength, or still morepreferably less than half the predetermined wavelength.

In some embodiments, some of the supporting circuitry for readout iscontained within the imaging integrated circuit. In some embodiments,the supporting circuitry is coupled to additional supporting circuitryor microprocessors that control the functions of the integrated circuit,such as gain or data clock rate. In some embodiments, the imagingintegrated circuit is commercial and off-the-shelf, having ahigh-resolution photosensitive array, supporting circuitry for readout,and an industry-standard interface for connection to a computer-basedsystem for image data display, storage, and analysis, for example, theAptina MT9E013, the OmniVision OV14825, and the OmniVision OV14810; thetechnical data for which are incorporated here by reference. As anillustrative example, the OmniVision OV5642 incorporates the fullfunctionality of a single chip, 5 megapixel digital camera with 1.4micron pixel widths, including output of images at 15 frames per second(fps) in RAW RGB mode and up to 60 fps in 1080i resolution. The OV5642supplies images for readout via serial camera control bus (SCCB) andmobile industry processor (MIPI) interfaces using digital video paralleland MIPI serial ports. It also supports output in RGB565/855/444,CCIR656, YUV422/420, and YCbCr422 modes.

The signal descriptions, pad numbers, and corresponding block and paddiagrams for OV5642 illustrate a preferred implementation for an imagingintegrated circuit; these are hereby incorporated by reference to theOmniVision OV5642 datasheet and product specification version 2.03.Computer-based systems that are capable of connection to the supportingcircuitry may be embedded or standalone, purpose-built or off-the-shelf,including, for example purpose-designed embedded computing systems,smartphones, portable computers, and netbooks.

In some embodiments, the computer-based system has firmware or softwarefor image analysis, storage, illumination control, and display. Suchfirmware or software has previously been paired with optical microscopesand digital camera technology. In some embodiments, the computer-basedsystem implements algorithms to enhance, detect, analyze, characterize,and measure images of cells and other specimens of interest and todisplay or transmit the result of these algorithms to a human operatorand/or a second computer-based system, such as a smartphone or storagesystem including hospital record storage systems. In some embodiments,the computer-based system implements enhancement algorithms that canidentify images of discrete specimens in smooth flow in a series oftime-lapsed images.

In some embodiments, the imaging integrated circuit's supportingcircuitry is coupled to additional circuitry on the mounting block. Insome embodiments, the mounting block incorporates certain interfaces inhardware that are capable of supplying the RAW, RGB, and/or TWAINstandard. Examples of interfaces for optical microscope cameras thatcould be adapted include those included in the Jenoptik ProgResProfessional Color CCD Firewire Camera; the Luminera Infinity Color CCDor CMOS USB-2 Cameras; and the Motic Moticam Color CMOS USB-2 Camera;the technical data and owner's manuals for which are incorporated hereby reference. In some embodiments, a computer-based system is coupled tothe mounting block interfaces for imaging analysis, display, andstorage. Examples of imaging analysis software that could be usedinclude ProgRes CapturePro, Infinity Capture and Infinity Analyze, andMotic Images Plus; the technical data and owner's manuals for which areincorporated here by reference. In some embodiments, the image capturedby the imaging integrated circuit is outputted to a storage medium. Insome embodiments, the image captured by the imaging integrated circuitis outputted to a real-time display device. In some embodiments, onlypixels of interest need be output from the imaging integrated circuit inorder to maintain a desired high temporal resolution; CMOS-based imagingintegrated circuits are well suited for this task but otherarchitectures are possible. The raw data of pixel array intensities, orthe post-acquisition images themselves, may be enhanced by variouscomputational means including but not limited to deconvolution, pixelinterpolation, spatial filtering, noise reduction, edge enhancement, andother methods. Moreover, in some embodiments, a suboptimal point-spreadfunction (whereby light meant to be detected at a given pixel is alsodetected by an adjacent pixel) may be corrected computationally. In someembodiments of an imaging system, the imaging integrated circuit,associated electronics, and analysis device are integrated so as to becombined in a portable housing; the light source may be integrated,standalone, or supplied from ambient light, allowing for desktop-,laptop-, cellphone-, or smaller-sized microscopes as the desiredapplication requires.

In some embodiments, there is a chamber lid that is substantiallytransmissive to at least one wavelength of light produced by a lightsource. The locating block is preferably a rectangle. The walls of thechamber lid may be square, rectangular, circular, elliptical, or someother shape appropriate to the specimen being imaged. In someembodiments, the top surface of the chamber lid is absent and amulti-colour light-emitting display surface forms the top of thespecimen chamber. In some embodiments, the chamber lid and locator blockare partially or substantially transparent or translucent. In otherembodiments, the chamber lid and locator block are opaque; examples ofapplications for such a design include chemiluminescence imaging andautoradiography. In some embodiments, the specimen chamber lid is notpresent, as for microscopic imaging of the surface of large or thickspecimens.

In some embodiments, the specimen chamber has a probe; examples ofprobes include temperature probe 501 and pH probe 503. In someembodiments, the specimen chamber has a pair or more of mountedelectrodes 507, 509 along the perimeter of the chamber for applyingtransverse or longitudinal electric fields or for stimulation ofspecimens. Such an arrangement of electrodes may be used, as examplesand in conjunction with appropriate fluid handling as described above,for electrophoresis, separation/sorting, determination of specimensurface charge, determination of zeta potential, cell stimulation, andspecimen orientation. In some embodiments, the specimen chamber has aheating element 505. Such a heating element may be used, as examples, inthe observation of time-dependent processes and in the incubation oflive specimens for time-lapse imaging.

In some embodiments, the photosensitive surface has been treated withone or more thin layers. The layers may be considered thin when theaggregate thickness of such layers as applied to a photosensitivesurface still allows for the near-field criterion to be satisfied orapproximately satisfied. In some embodiments, the layers are thin enoughfor specimens to come within half a pixel width of the photosensitivesurface. In some embodiments, the layers are thin enough in thedirection of the optical path so that the total distance that theoptical path takes through the layers is no more than about thewavelength of interest. In some embodiments, a thin layer of transparentchemically resistant material coats the photosensitive surface. Such athin-film substrate may be any sufficiently transparent and insulatingmaterial, including but not limited to silicon oxide, titanium oxide,aluminum oxide, tantalum oxide, magnesium fluoride, lanthanum fluoride,aluminum fluoride, silicon nitride, and silicon oxynitride; and it maybe deposited by a variety of means including but not limited tomagnetron sputtering, chemical vapour deposition, thermal or vacuum arcplasma evaporation. In some embodiments, the substrate is a dielectricthin film acting as an interference filter, thereby restricting thespectral sensitivity of the underlying pixels as appropriate to a givenapplication. In some embodiments, the substrate is used to effectcertain forms of color imaging. In certain embodiments, the substrate issubstantially transmissive to a portion of a predetermined wavelengthband, such as a band-pass filter. In other embodiments such as forfluorescence or emission microscopy, the substrate 618 is substantiallytransmissive to an alternative predetermined wavelength band whichcorresponds to the wavelength band produced by fluorescence, emission,or in other ways, of the specimen. In some embodiments, the substrateincludes a dielectric thin film acting as an anti-reflection coating. Insome embodiments, there are multiple substrates situated in closecontact to each other. In some embodiments, the photosensitive surfaceis silanized so as to decrease adhesion between the surface and thespecimen. In some embodiments, the chemically resistant material 615includes diamond, deposited in a suitably thin layer as, for example, bychemical vapor deposition. In some embodiments, the chemically resistantmaterial includes Al₂O₃ or Si₃N₄, deposited in a suitably thin layer as,for example, by chemical vapour deposition. Such materials can impartmore robust characteristics to the photosensitive surface, allowing forease of cleaning as well as protection of the surface from abrasivespecimens. In some embodiments, a passivation layer 620, typically ofSi₃N₄, coats the imaging integrated circuit, resulting in reducedconductivity when used with metallic or other conductive samples such assalt solutions. Technology is available to deposit such filters as athin film and in arbitrary pixel-by-pixel patterns.

In some embodiments, a thin layer of polarizing material 614 coats thephotosensitive surface. In some embodiments, a thin layer of absorptivematerial 614 coats the photosensitive surface. In some embodiments, athin layer of interference material 614 coats the photosensitivesurface. In some embodiments, a thin layer of surface plasmon generatingmaterial 619 coats the photosensitive surface.

In some embodiments, a thin layer of adhesive material 617 coats theimaging integrated circuit 613. Coatings with molecules having specificaffinities can be used to exclude or enrich particular cells or otherspecimens of interest. Such treatment could also be used, in conjunctionwith fluorophores 616, nanoparticles or microbeads, for binding assays.Non-selective adhesives will create an imaging “stick patch” that couldbe used, as an example, for forensic applications. In some embodiments,a thin layer of light-transmissive material 614 containing fluorophores,phosphors or up-converters coats the photosensitive surface. Suchmolecules are excited at one wavelength and emit at another. In someembodiments, fluorophores are excited with wavelengths outside thespectrally sensitive range of the imaging integrated circuit andemitting, including by frequency upconversion, within the circuit'sspectral range, thereby extending the useful spectral range of theimaging integrated circuit, e.g. into the X-ray spectrum. In someembodiments, the device further comprises a system for detecting Ramanscattering. In some embodiments, the device further comprises a systemfor detecting X-ray fluorescence.

Example 1

A specimen of a thin Mylar sheet was placed in direct contact with theexposed surface of a commercially available, 1.3 megapixel CMOS imagingintegrated circuit having 5.2 μm×5.2 μm pixels, and an image (FIG. 11)was collected using a diffuse white light source, a computer, andcommercially available image acquisition software. The upper left andupper right corners of the field of view are empty, with the specimenfilling the rest of the field of view; scratches and other features ofthe specimen as small as single pixels are clearly visible.

Example 2

Using the CMOS imaging integrated circuit and light source of Example 1,a specimen of aerosol organic solvent was nebulized and therebydeposited onto the chip surface. Acquisition of the image produced FIG.12.

Example 3

A 1 μl droplet of water was deposited directly onto the CMOS chipsurface as in Examples 1 and 2, using the same light source. Edges ofthe droplet spontaneously aligned with the pixel rows and columns,yielding the unusual lozenge shape. Suspended in the droplet wereSephadex beads of sizes ranging from <20 μm to >100 μm. Acquisition ofthe image produced FIG. 13. The larger beads cast a prominent diffuseshadow because their equators are far from the surface. This effectwould be slightly reduced with collimated illumination and is muchreduced with smaller beads.

Example 4

The protective window of an Aptina CMOS imaging integrated circuit wasremoved, exposing the photosensitive surface of the array having of 2.2μm×2.2 μm pixels. A diffuse white light source was used, as was acomputer-based system equipped with commercially available software forimage acquisition as supplied with the array. A minute sample (˜10 μl)of blood was obtained from an African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis) anddiluted in calcium-free amphibian Ringer's solution. A drop of thediluted blood was deposited directly onto the surface of the array.Acquisition of an image by the array produced FIG. 14 (top); a smallportion of this large (3.2×2.4 mm) field of view can be seen at highermagnification simply by “zooming in” on the acquired image (FIG. 9,bottom). The elliptical shape and nucleated structure of these living,unstained erythrocytes (long axis ˜24 μm, short axis ˜16 μm) is clearlyevident. The zoomed image was enhanced by 2×2 pixel augmentation withbicubic interpolation. The images produced were intrinsicallycalibrated, as the dimensions of the pixels are known. In this Example,pixels are 2.2 μm wide in the raw image, and 1.1 μm wide in the 2×2interpolated image.

Example 5

Using the same imaging integrated circuit of Example 4, a video sequenceof a live Daphnia in pond water was obtained, a region of interest fromtwo frames of which is shown in FIG. 15.

Other embodiments are also within the scope of the following claims.

1. An apparatus comprising: a portable housing containing a lid, a lightsource, a photosensitive array of pixels at a first surface, the firstsurface being configured to receive a specimen with at least a part ofthe specimen within a near-field distance from the first surface, asecond surface configured to be movable to and from a predefinedposition relative to the first surface, and a fluid flow systemconfigured to enable a droplet of the specimen to be applied from apipette or syringe to the surface associated with the array.
 2. Theapparatus of claim 1 in which the photosensitive array of pixelscomprises an imaging integrated circuit.
 3. The apparatus of claim 1comprising a computer-based system programmed to display, analyze, orstore high-resolution images of the specimen using information derivedfrom the photosensitive array of pixels.
 4. The apparatus of claim 1 inwhich the specimen comprises a liquid or is suspended or dissolved in aliquid.
 5. The apparatus of claim 1 in which the second surface isconfigured to transmit light.
 6. The apparatus of claim 1 in which thelight source is positioned to deliver light through the second surfaceto the first surface.
 7. The apparatus of claim 1 in which the lightsource comprises light-emitting diodes.
 8. The apparatus of claim 1 inwhich the photosensitive array of pixels provides a high resolutionimage.